Kubera

Kubera (Sanskrit: कुबेर), also known as Vaiśravaṇa, Dhanapati, and Yakṣarāja, is the Hindu god of wealth, treasures, and prosperity. He is the king of the Yakshas, a class of nature spirits, and the regent of the northern direction (Dikpala). His origins are traced to the Rigveda, where he is mentioned as the lord of the hidden treasures of the earth (Rigveda 1.42.3). In the Puranas, he is described as the son of sage Viśravas and his wife Ilavilā, making him a half-brother of the demon king Rāvaṇa. After performing severe penance, he received from Brahma the boon of being the god of wealth and the ruler of the northern direction, along with the city of Alakāpuri in the Himalayas as his abode. Iconographically, Kubera is depicted with a white or golden complexion and a potbelly, symbolizing abundance.

He holds a mace (gadā), a mongoose (nakula) that vomits jewels, and a pot of treasures (nidhi). Sometimes he is shown with four arms, holding a citron (bījapūraka) and a money bag. His vahana (mount) is a man or a horse. The mongoose is particularly significant as it represents the ability to overcome the serpent of greed and protect wealth. Principal myths include his role in the Ramayana, where he is a friend of Rāma and lends his celestial chariot Puṣpaka to Rāvaṇa, which later returns to him after Rāvaṇa's defeat (Ramayana, Yuddha Kanda). In the Mahabharata, Kubera is present at the court of Indra and is described as the lord of the Yakshas and Kinnaras (Mahabharata, Sabha Parva).

The Skanda Purana narrates his penance and the boon from Brahma. Kubera is also associated with the goddess Lakshmi in some traditions, though his consort is Bhadra (also called Riddhi). Regional worship includes Dhanteras, the first day of Diwali, when Kubera is invoked for wealth and prosperity. In Buddhist traditions, he is known as Jambhala and is a popular deity in Tibet. In Hindu cosmology, Kubera governs the northern direction and is one of the eight Lokapālas (guardians of the directions). He represents material prosperity and the hidden wealth of the earth, but also reminds devotees of the need for generosity and detachment.

His worship is often combined with that of Lakshmi, and mantras such as 'Om Kuberāya Namaḥ' are recited for financial well-being.

The name Kubera (Sanskrit: कुबेर) is of uncertain origin. In later Sanskrit, the variant Kuvera (कुवेर) appears, meaning 'deformed' or 'ill-shaped,' referencing his physical peculiarities.

Another theory derives it from the root kumbh ('to conceal'), alluding to his role as guardian of hidden treasures. The split ku ('earth') and vira ('hero') yields 'hero of the earth.' His patronymic Vaiśravaṇa (Pali: Vessavaṇa) means 'son of Viśravas' (fame).

The epithet Ekākṣipiṅgala ('one yellow eye') arises from a myth where he lost an eye due to jealousy. Regional variants include Kuberan in Tamil and Kuvera in classical texts.

The Amarakosha lists synonyms such as Dhanapati ('lord of wealth'), Yakṣarāja ('king of yakshas'), and Rājarāja ('king of kings').

Kubera first appears in the Rigveda (1.42.3) as a chief of evil spirits or beings dwelling in darkness, akin to a Pluto figure. In the Atharvaveda (8.10.28), he is invoked as lord of treasures.

His rise to prominence occurs in the epics and Puranas. The Mahabharata (Sabha Parva) describes him as a dikpāla (regent of the north) and lord of yakshas and kinnaras, present in Indra's court.

The Ramayana (Yuddha Kanda) narrates his role as former king of Lanka, overthrown by Rāvaṇa, and his lending of the Puṣpaka chariot. The Skanda Purana details his penance and boon from Brahma, granting him immortality, guardianship of the north, and lordship over wealth.

The Viṣṇudharmottara Purana provides iconographic prescriptions. In Vedic texts he is ambivalent, but by Puranic times he is fully deified as a benevolent god of prosperity.

Kubera is typically depicted with a plump, dwarf-like body, a large belly, and a complexion like lotus leaves. He has three legs, eight teeth, one eye, and is adorned with jewels. He holds a mace (gadā), a money bag, or a pomegranate; sometimes a mongoose vomiting jewels, symbolizing victory over nāgas (treasure guardians).

His vahana is a man (nara) or a horse. The Viṣṇudharmottara Purana prescribes four arms: left pair holding a mace and a shakti, right pair holding standards with a lion and a club. His wife Riddhi sits on his left lap, holding a jewel-pot.

In South Indian bronzes, he is often shown with a potbelly and a mongoose; in North Indian miniatures, he may be seated on a throne with a money bag. The Agni Purana recommends installing him on a goat. In Buddhist art, he is Vaiśravaṇa, holding a banner and a mongoose.

In Advaita Vedānta, Kubera represents the cosmic principle of wealth (artha) as a manifestation of Brahman, yet he is ultimately a subordinate deity within the hierarchy of jīvas. In Viśiṣṭadvaita, he is a divine being serving Viṣṇu, entrusted with the prosperity of the world.

Dvaita traditions view him as a distinct deva subordinate to Viṣṇu, ruling over yakṣas and treasures. In Śākta traditions, Kubera is associated with Lakṣmī as the bestower of material abundance, and his consort Bhadra (Riddhi) embodies prosperity.

Tantric texts sometimes incorporate him as a dhanada (giver of wealth) in rituals. In Vaishnava contexts, he is a devotee of Viṣṇu and a guardian of the north.

The Viṣṇudharmottara Purāṇa describes him as the embodiment of Artha and the science of polity (Arthaśāstra). His iconography, with a mace symbolizing justice and a mongoose overcoming greed, reflects his role as a righteous custodian of wealth.

Kubera appears in Bharatanatyam and Kathakali as a character in Ramayana-based performances. Carnatic compositions like 'Kubera Gāna' praise him. In Pahari and Mughal miniatures, he is depicted as a regal figure with a potbelly.

Tanjore paintings show him with a mongoose and jewels. Folk forms like Yakshagana include him as a deity of wealth. In Bali, he is revered as a god of prosperity.

In Cambodia and Thailand, he is Vaiśravaṇa, one of the four lokapālas. In Tibetan Buddhism, he is Jambhala, a wealth deity. Dhanteras, the first day of Diwali, is dedicated to him; devotees light lamps and pray for prosperity.

His influence extends to Jainism, where he is Sarvanubhuti, a yaksha attendant of Tīrthaṅkaras.